{"id":"https://openalex.org/W2012923536","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.93.23.12686","title":"Long-term change in the organization of inventive activity","display_name":"Long-term change in the organization of inventive activity","publication_year":1996,"publication_date":"1996-11-12","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W2012923536","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.93.23.12686","mag":"2012923536","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8917480","pmcid":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/34123"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1073/pnas.93.23.12686","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.93.23.12686","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.93.23.12686","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S125754415","display_name":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences","issn_l":"0027-8424","issn":["0027-8424","1091-6490"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","dongbi-a","doyens","erih-plus","jufo-3","ki-jl-3","medline","norway-2","poland-200","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320052","host_organization_name":"National Academy of Sciences","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320052"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["National Academy of Sciences"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"green","oa_url":"http://europepmc.org/pmc/articles/PMC34123","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5040209096","display_name":"Naomi R. Lamoreaux","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I161318765","display_name":"University of California, Los Angeles","ror":"https://ror.org/046rm7j60","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I161318765"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Naomi R. Lamoreaux","raw_affiliation_strings":["Departments of Economics and History, University of California, 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90095"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Departments of Economics and History, University of California, 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90095","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I161318765"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5084285343","display_name":"Kenneth L. Sokoloff","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I161318765","display_name":"University of California, Los Angeles","ror":"https://ror.org/046rm7j60","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I161318765"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Kenneth L. Sokoloff","raw_affiliation_strings":["Departments of Economics and History, University of California, 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90095"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Departments of Economics and History, University of California, 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90095","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I161318765"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I161318765"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":3.3774,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":111,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.92298472,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":89,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"93","issue":"23","first_page":"12686","last_page":"12692"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10856","display_name":"Intellectual Property and Patents","score":0.9628999829292297,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1405","display_name":"Management of Technology and Innovation"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/14","display_name":"Business, Management and Accounting"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10856","display_name":"Intellectual Property and Patents","score":0.9628999829292297,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1405","display_name":"Management of Technology and Innovation"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/14","display_name":"Business, Management and Accounting"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10605","display_name":"Historical Economic and Social Studies","score":0.019899999722838402,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2002","display_name":"Economics and Econometrics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/20","display_name":"Economics, Econometrics and Finance"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13641","display_name":"Historical Studies and Socio-cultural Analysis","score":0.007499999832361937,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1207","display_name":"History and Philosophy of Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/12","display_name":"Arts and Humanities"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/inventive-activity","display_name":"inventive activity","score":0.8980000019073486},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/patenting","display_name":"patenting","score":0.746999979019165},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/technology-licensing","display_name":"technology licensing","score":0.6480000019073486},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/technology-transfer","display_name":"technology transfer","score":0.4569999873638153},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/division-of-labor","display_name":"division of labor","score":0.8230000138282776},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/commercialization-of-inventions","display_name":"commercialization of inventions","score":0.6380000114440918},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/19th-century","display_name":"19th century","score":0.6779999732971191},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/early-20th-century","display_name":"early 20th century","score":0.9470000267028809},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/human-capital","display_name":"human capital","score":0.4320000112056732},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/physical-capital","display_name":"physical capital","score":0.6259999871253967},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/product-market-competition","display_name":"product market competition","score":0.49300000071525574},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/history-of-innovation","display_name":"history of innovation","score":0.40700000524520874}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780560020","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q79719","display_name":"License","level":2,"score":0.6989936232566833},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C29122968","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1414816","display_name":"Incentive","level":2,"score":0.6267664432525635},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C40700","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1411783","display_name":"Industrial organization","level":1,"score":0.5691885948181152},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144133560","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4830453","display_name":"Business","level":0,"score":0.5312029719352722},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C90673727","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q901718","display_name":"Product (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.5227282643318176},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204983608","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2111958","display_name":"Productivity","level":2,"score":0.5046826601028442},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C137996800","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q762702","display_name":"Technological change","level":2,"score":0.4945037066936493},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C994546","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207449","display_name":"Division of labour","level":2,"score":0.46822115778923035},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C207267971","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q120208","display_name":"Emerging technologies","level":2,"score":0.44689613580703735},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C74676461","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1146011","display_name":"Exclusive right","level":3,"score":0.4254220128059387},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120330832","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q166656","display_name":"Supply and demand","level":2,"score":0.4221023619174957},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777098202","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7692324","display_name":"Technical change","level":3,"score":0.4210275113582611},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C162324750","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8134","display_name":"Economics","level":0,"score":0.41508638858795166},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776943663","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q165687","display_name":"Human capital","level":2,"score":0.4149768650531769},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C34447519","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q179522","display_name":"Market economy","level":1,"score":0.37186479568481445},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C54750564","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q26643","display_name":"Commerce","level":1,"score":0.3709528148174286},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C34974158","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131257","display_name":"Intellectual property","level":2,"score":0.23640847206115723},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C50522688","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189833","display_name":"Economic growth","level":1,"score":0.13370367884635925},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.10955837368965149},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C175444787","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q39072","display_name":"Microeconomics","level":1,"score":0.10693442821502686},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111919701","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9135","display_name":"Operating system","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C139719470","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q39680","display_name":"Macroeconomics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2524010","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8087","display_name":"Geometry","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[{"descriptor_ui":"D000383","descriptor_name":"Agriculture","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D005843","descriptor_name":"Geography","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D006801","descriptor_name":"Humans","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D007221","descriptor_name":"Industry","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D010330","descriptor_name":"Patents as Topic","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D012106","descriptor_name":"Research","qualifier_ui":"Q000191","qualifier_name":"economics","is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D012106","descriptor_name":"Research","qualifier_ui":"Q000639","qualifier_name":"trends","is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D012108","descriptor_name":"Research Personnel","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D012424","descriptor_name":"Rural Population","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D014481","descriptor_name":"United States","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D014505","descriptor_name":"Urban Population","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false}],"locations_count":4,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1073/pnas.93.23.12686","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.93.23.12686","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.93.23.12686","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S125754415","display_name":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences","issn_l":"0027-8424","issn":["0027-8424","1091-6490"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","dongbi-a","doyens","erih-plus","jufo-3","ki-jl-3","medline","norway-2","poland-200","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320052","host_organization_name":"National Academy of Sciences","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320052"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["National Academy of Sciences"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:europepmc.org:192365","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://europepmc.org/pmc/articles/PMC34123","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400806","display_name":"Europe PMC (PubMed Central)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1303153112","host_organization_name":"European Bioinformatics Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1303153112"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:pubmedcentral.nih.gov:34123","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/34123","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764455111","display_name":"PubMed Central","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"pmid:8917480","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8917480","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America","raw_type":"Comparative Study"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"pmh:oai:europepmc.org:192365","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://europepmc.org/pmc/articles/PMC34123","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400806","display_name":"Europe PMC (PubMed Central)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1303153112","host_organization_name":"European Bioinformatics Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1303153112"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"Text"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Industry, innovation and infrastructure","score":0.7207000255584717,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/9"}],"sustainable_development_goals_aurora":[{"display_name":"Decent work and economic growth","score":0.6499999761581421,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/8"}],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":8,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W130815489","https://openalex.org/W2080476054","https://openalex.org/W2116230188","https://openalex.org/W2135011913","https://openalex.org/W2152667932","https://openalex.org/W2153923814","https://openalex.org/W2891899303","https://openalex.org/W4319589138"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2510378932","https://openalex.org/W1537855369","https://openalex.org/W3123336309","https://openalex.org/W2067169070","https://openalex.org/W4414091813","https://openalex.org/W2050484849","https://openalex.org/W2153923814","https://openalex.org/W2001390941","https://openalex.org/W2067576317","https://openalex.org/W3121722013"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Relying":[0],"on":[1],"a":[2,25,61,207,252],"quantitative":[3],"analysis":[4],"of":[5,11,17,28,51,57,63,75,87,92,120,144,148,159,164,183,200,206,251,255,263],"the":[6,15,43,49,55,71,78,81,90,114,117,130,142,157,175,184,204,249,261,268],"patenting":[7,188],"and":[8,24,36,45,73,84,94,161,217,229],"assignment":[9],"behavior":[10],"inventors,":[12],"we":[13],"highlight":[14],"evolution":[16,205],"institutions":[18,177],"that":[19,147,174],"encouraged":[20,203,214],"trade":[21,168,240],"in":[22,54,108,169,180,212,241,267],"technology":[23,88],"growing":[26,82,118],"division":[27],"labor":[29],"between":[30],"those":[31,37,181],"who":[32,38],"invented":[33],"new":[34,150],"technologies":[35,133,151],"exploited":[39],"them":[40],"commercially":[41],"over":[42],"nineteenth":[44],"early-twentieth":[46],"centuries.":[47],"At":[48],"heart":[50],"this":[52,109],"change":[53],"organization":[56],"inventive":[58,201],"activity":[59,110,189,202],"was":[60,244],"set":[62],"familiar":[64],"developments":[65],"which":[66,211],"had":[67,190],"significant":[68],"consequences":[69],"for":[70,98,105,153,167,209],"supply":[72,79],"demand":[74,115],"inventions.":[76],"On":[77,113],"side,":[80,116],"complexity":[83],"capital":[85,96],"intensity":[86],"raised":[89],"amount":[91],"human":[93],"physical":[95],"required":[97],"effective":[99],"invention,":[100],"making":[101],"it":[102,224],"increasingly":[103,225],"desirable":[104],"individuals":[106,222],"involved":[107],"to":[111,125,132,140,227,234,248],"specialize.":[112],"competitiveness":[119],"product":[121],"markets":[122,160],"induced":[123],"firms":[124],"purchase":[126],"or":[127],"otherwise":[128],"obtain":[129],"rights":[131],"developed":[134],"by":[135],"others.":[136],"These":[137],"increasing":[138],"incentives":[139],"differentiate":[141],"task":[143],"invention":[145,220,258],"from":[146],"commercializing":[149],"depended":[152],"their":[154,231],"realization":[155],"upon":[156],"development":[158],"other":[162],"types":[163],"organizational":[165],"supports":[166],"technology.":[170],"The":[171],"evidence":[172],"suggests":[173],"necessary":[176],"evolved":[178],"first":[179],"regions":[182],"country":[185],"where":[186],"early":[187],"already":[191],"been":[192,236],"concentrated.":[193],"A":[194],"self-reinforcing":[195],"process":[196],"whereby":[197],"high":[198,253],"rates":[199],"market":[208,239],"technology,":[210],"turn":[213],"greater":[215],"specialization":[216,256],"productivity":[218],"at":[219,257],"as":[221],"found":[223],"feasible":[226],"sell":[228],"license":[230],"discoveries,":[232],"appears":[233],"have":[235],"operating.":[237],"This":[238],"technological":[242],"information":[243],"an":[245],"important":[246],"contributor":[247],"achievement":[250],"level":[254],"well":[259],"before":[260],"rise":[262],"large-scale":[264],"research":[265],"laboratories":[266],"twentieth":[269],"century.":[270]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":32},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2019,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2017,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2016,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2015,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2014,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2013,"cited_by_count":8},{"year":2012,"cited_by_count":3}],"updated_date":"2026-10-31T12:09:11.096373","created_date":"2016-06-24T00:00:00"}