{"id":"https://openalex.org/W1998323549","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1044/0161-1461.2702.132","title":"Defining Learning and Language Disabilities","display_name":"Defining Learning and Language Disabilities","publication_year":1996,"publication_date":"1996-04-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W1998323549","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1044/0161-1461.2702.132","mag":"1998323549"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1044/0161-1461.2702.132","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1044/0161-1461.2702.132","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1044/0161-1461.2702.132","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S62317556","display_name":"Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools","issn_l":"0161-1461","issn":["0161-1461","1558-9129"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-scientific","cwts-core","dongbi-b","jufo-1","ki-jl-1","medline","norway-1","poland-100","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320281","host_organization_name":"American Speech\u2013Language\u2013Hearing Association","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320281"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["American Speech\u2013Language\u2013Hearing Association"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5059244192","display_name":"David J. Francis","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3944-3274","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3944-3274"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I44461941","display_name":"University of Houston","ror":"https://ror.org/048sx0r50","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I44461941"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"David J. Francis","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Psychology, University of Houston, 4800 Calhoun, Houston, TX 77204-5341","Google Scholar"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Psychology, University of Houston, 4800 Calhoun, Houston, TX 77204-5341","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I44461941"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Google Scholar","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5022208991","display_name":"Jack McKay Fletcher","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1181-6721","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1181-6721"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I919571938","display_name":"The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston","ror":"https://ror.org/03gds6c39","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I919571938"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jack M. Fletcher","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Texas Medical School, Houston, TX","Google Scholar"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Texas Medical School, Houston, TX","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I919571938"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Google Scholar","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5071612872","display_name":"Bennett A. Shaywitz","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0750-1372","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0750-1372"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I32971472","display_name":"Yale University","ror":"https://ror.org/03v76x132","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I32971472"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Bennett A. Shaywitz","raw_affiliation_strings":["Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT","Google Scholar"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I32971472"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Google Scholar","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5077061315","display_name":"Sally E. Shaywitz","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8931-553X","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8931-553X"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I32971472","display_name":"Yale University","ror":"https://ror.org/03v76x132","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I32971472"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Sally E. Shaywitz","raw_affiliation_strings":["Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT","Google Scholar"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I32971472"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Google Scholar","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5040977661","display_name":"Byron P. Rourke","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I74413500","display_name":"University of Windsor","ror":"https://ror.org/01gw3d370","country_code":"CA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I74413500"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Byron P. Rourke","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Windsor, Windsor, Ontario","Google Scholar"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Windsor, Windsor, Ontario","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I74413500"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Google Scholar","institution_ids":[]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":2.3558,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":60,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.86920981,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":89,"max":98},"biblio":{"volume":"27","issue":"2","first_page":"132","last_page":"143"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T14104","display_name":"Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology","score":0.9419000148773193,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3206","display_name":"Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T14104","display_name":"Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology","score":0.9419000148773193,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3206","display_name":"Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13447","display_name":"Educational and Psychological Assessments","score":0.018200000748038292,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3204","display_name":"Developmental and Educational Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11577","display_name":"Cognitive Abilities and Testing","score":0.011500000022351742,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3205","display_name":"Experimental and Cognitive Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/learning-disabilities","display_name":"learning disabilities","score":0.9869999885559082},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/language-disorders","display_name":"language disorders","score":0.9679999947547913},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/intelligence-testing","display_name":"intelligence testing","score":0.9490000009536743},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/disability-identification","display_name":"disability identification","score":0.6600000262260437},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/children","display_name":"children","score":0.4399999976158142},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/academic-achievement","display_name":"academic performance","score":0.4440000057220459}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.8244820833206177},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15107229","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q860740","display_name":"Learning disability","level":2,"score":0.6402866840362549},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C166047926","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170277","display_name":"Intelligence quotient","level":3,"score":0.6040173768997192},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138496976","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q175002","display_name":"Developmental psychology","level":1,"score":0.5644164085388184},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C74672266","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q815859","display_name":"Language acquisition","level":2,"score":0.44744449853897095},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781206393","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2748419","display_name":"Academic achievement","level":2,"score":0.4388328790664673},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777267654","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3519023","display_name":"Test (biology)","level":2,"score":0.4199901223182678},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C171606756","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q506132","display_name":"Psychometrics","level":2,"score":0.41341957449913025},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C180747234","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23373","display_name":"Cognitive psychology","level":1,"score":0.3866868019104004},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169900460","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2200417","display_name":"Cognition","level":2,"score":0.2992185950279236},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C145420912","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q853077","display_name":"Mathematics education","level":1,"score":0.1957450807094574},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C151730666","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7205","display_name":"Paleontology","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86803240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420","display_name":"Biology","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169760540","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207011","display_name":"Neuroscience","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1044/0161-1461.2702.132","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1044/0161-1461.2702.132","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1044/0161-1461.2702.132","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S62317556","display_name":"Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools","issn_l":"0161-1461","issn":["0161-1461","1558-9129"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-scientific","cwts-core","dongbi-b","jufo-1","ki-jl-1","medline","norway-1","poland-100","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320281","host_organization_name":"American Speech\u2013Language\u2013Hearing Association","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320281"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["American Speech\u2013Language\u2013Hearing Association"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4","display_name":"Quality education","score":0.4156000018119812}],"sustainable_development_goals_aurora":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4","display_name":"Quality education","score":0.8799999952316284}],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":32,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W13889734","https://openalex.org/W169984884","https://openalex.org/W275029698","https://openalex.org/W295138228","https://openalex.org/W1965033403","https://openalex.org/W1983040656","https://openalex.org/W1992351390","https://openalex.org/W1994209614","https://openalex.org/W2018080421","https://openalex.org/W2021519364","https://openalex.org/W2031105829","https://openalex.org/W2039050556","https://openalex.org/W2042995071","https://openalex.org/W2054851453","https://openalex.org/W2065322704","https://openalex.org/W2069035587","https://openalex.org/W2086732370","https://openalex.org/W2094160165","https://openalex.org/W2105243421","https://openalex.org/W2111515219","https://openalex.org/W2117997072","https://openalex.org/W2128091892","https://openalex.org/W2129957010","https://openalex.org/W2137975564","https://openalex.org/W2152872241","https://openalex.org/W2166879612","https://openalex.org/W2172469709","https://openalex.org/W2317934904","https://openalex.org/W2580548580","https://openalex.org/W2975527981","https://openalex.org/W4230579509","https://openalex.org/W4236031281"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2011527698","https://openalex.org/W7095669458","https://openalex.org/W123010729","https://openalex.org/W2378302604","https://openalex.org/W2415874905","https://openalex.org/W1992351390","https://openalex.org/W7126314294","https://openalex.org/W81906465","https://openalex.org/W639393214","https://openalex.org/W2056122334"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"This":[0,80],"article":[1,81],"employed":[2],"multivariate":[3],"graphic":[4],"techniques":[5],"to":[6,57],"address":[7],"three":[8],"issues":[9,54],"concerning":[10],"the":[11,28,31,42,58,69,84],"use":[12],"of":[13,30,44,60,72,75,88],"IQ":[14,39,76,89],"tests":[15,90],"for":[16,34,91],"identifying":[17,92],"children":[18,93],"with":[19,94],"learning":[20,95],"and/or":[21,46,96],"language":[22,47,97],"disabilities.":[23],"The":[24,49,65],"first":[25],"issue":[26,51,67],"concerns":[27],"weakness":[29],"conceptual":[32],"rationale":[33],"models":[35],"that":[36,38,55,83],"suggest":[37],"directly,":[40],"influences":[41],"attainment":[43,78],"academic":[45],"skills.":[48],"second":[50],"addresses":[52],"psychometric":[53,70],"relate":[56],"significance":[59],"an":[61],"IQ/attainment":[62],"difference":[63],"score.":[64],"third":[66],"involves":[68],"limitations":[71],"simple":[73],"comparisons":[74],"and":[77,101],"scores.":[79],"shows":[82],"historically":[85],"prominent":[86],"role":[87],"disabilities":[98],"is":[99],"conceptually":[100],"psychometrically":[102],"unwarranted.":[103]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2019,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2016,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2015,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2014,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2013,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2012,"cited_by_count":3}],"updated_date":"2026-10-08T09:06:37.294493","created_date":"2016-06-24T00:00:00"}
