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sedtointellec-":[58],"tualrespectability.Writingin1747,thecriticLafontdeSaint-Yenne":[59],"decriedtheoverabundanceofportraitsattheSalons,butadmittedthat":[60],"portraiturewasthemostreliablemeansofearningalivingforartists.10":[61],"AndSaint-Yenne'splaintsetthepatternfortherestofthecentury.":[62],"Althoughcriticscontinuedtocomplainoftheoverabundanceofpor-":[63],"traitsattheSalons,theytendedtobemorefavorablydisposedtoward":[64],"portraitsofrulersandgreatmen,whichcouldbeconstruedasmorally":[65],"exemplary.\"TheComted'Angiviller'spolicyofcommissioninglifesize":[66],"statuesofFrance'sgrandshommes,likethecommissioningofpaintings":[67],"depictingnationalisticsubjects,washistoric,rational,andpatrioticinits":[68],"aims.12Buttherepresentationofgrandeurwasbynomeanseasy.":[69],"DavidandHistoricalFiction":[70,81,131,180,235],"179":[72],"Figure1.J.-L.David,DeathofMarat,1793(Brussels,Mus\u00e9esroyauxdesBeauxarts).":[73],"PhotoGiraudonreproducedbypermission.":[74],"180":[75],"Figure2.J.-L.David,BonaparteCrossingtheAlpsatSaint-Bernard,1800(Malmaison,":[78],"Mus\u00e9e":[79],"national).":[80],"181":[83],"Houdon,thepre-eminentneoclassicalsculptorofthelateeighteenth":[84],"century,specializedinportraitsoftheleadingstatesmenofhisday,from":[85],"VoltairetoWashington.Yetironically,Houdon'scontributiontothe":[86],"grandshommesseries,AdmiraldeTourville,1781,isoneofhisleast":[87],"successfuleffigies.":[88],"Throughouttheeighteenthcenturyroyalportraitswerecommissioned":[89],"fromleadingartistsbythecrownandexhibitedpubliclyattheSalons.":[90],"Duringthe1780stherewasaconcertedefforttorepairMarie":[91],"Antoinette'ssaggingpopularitybycommissioningedifyingportraitsof":[92],"theQueen,notablytheGreuzian,maternalimagepaintedbyMme.Vig\u00e9e":[93],"Lebrun,whichwasbelatedlyexhibitedattheSalonof1787(fig.3).13":[94],"Vig\u00e9eLebrun,followingDavid'sadvice,basedhercompositionona":[95],"HolyFamilybyRaphael.14Althoughthepicturewaspraisedforits":[96],"decorativequalities,JosephBailliohasconvincinglyargued,inadiscussionoftheinstabilityofthepainting":[97],"'smeaning,thatVig\u00e9eLebrun's":[98],"hybridportrayaloftheregalandthematernalfailedtocoalescein1787.":[99],"Despitethisportrait'seloquentrhetoricanddistinguishedpedigree,it":[100],"founderedasapieceofpoliticalpropaganda(Baillio,59).I5Ironically,":[101],"becauseportraitselevatetheindividualandemphasizethespecific,clas-":[102],"sicizingcritics,suchasLessingandWinckelmann,excludedportraiture":[103],"fromtheiraestheticconsiderations,assumingthataportraitcouldnot":[104],"easilyfunctionasanexemplumvirtutis.16David'sofficialportraits,how-":[105],"ever,provethecontrary\u2014alessonthathasnotbeenlostonsubsequent":[106],"authoritarianregimes.":[107],"AlthoughDavid'scriticalreputationrestedprimarilyuponhisskillasa":[108],"historypainter,hepracticedportraiturethroughouthiscareer.Theartist":[109],"'searly,ruggedlyrealisticportraitsoftenrepresentintimates,suchas":[110],"Fran\u00e7oisBuronandhiswife,whoposedin1769.OneofDavid'searliest":[111],"publicsuccesses,however,whichwasexhibitedattheSalonof1781on":[112],"hisreturnfromRome,isthespectacularequestrianPortraitofCount":[113],"Potocki(Warsaw,NationalMuseum)(fig.4),whichanticipatesthe":[114],"BonaparteCrossingtheAlps,executedalmosttwentyyearslater.":[115],"Althoughpaintedforaprivateclient,thegrandstyleandambitiousscale":[116],"revealedthegeniusofahistorypainter.17IndebtedtobothRubensand":[117],"VanDyck,thePortraitofPotockialsoillustratesDavid'spainterlybrio":[118],"andpropensityforthetheatrical.Itwas,however,thevicissitudesof":[119],"historyitself\u2014theFrenchRevolutionandthetriumphofNapoleon\u2014":[120],"thatprovidedthescriptforDavid'smostinspiredpiecesofhistorical":[121],"fiction:thelostPortraitofLePelletier,theDeathofMarat,andBona-":[122],"parteCrossingtheAlpsatSaint-Bernard.":[123],"David'srivetingDeathofMarat(Brussels,Mus\u00e9esroyauxdesBeaux-":[124],"Arts)(fig.1)wascommissionedbytheConventionon14July1793,the":[125],"182":[126],"Figure3.Vig\u00e9eLeBrun,MarieAntoinetteandHerChildren,1787(Versailles,Mus\u00e9e":[129],"nationalduCh\u00e2teau).Photocredit:Giraudon/ArtResource,NewYork.":[130],"183":[133],"Figure4.J.-L.DavidPortraitofCountPotocki,1781(Warsaw,NationalMuseum).Photo":[134],"Giraudonreproducedbypermission.":[135],"184":[136],"dayafterMarat'sassassination,andcompletedinmidOctober,whenit":[139],"wasexhibitedaspendanttothePortraitofLePelletieronthePresident's":[140],"tribunal.18TheConventionalsoorderedengravingsofthetwomartyrs'":[141],"portraits:1000impressionsweretobedistributedtorepresentativesof":[142],"thepeopleandthedepartments.David,anadmirerofthedetestedand":[143],"widelyfearedradicaljournalist,hadvisitedMaratthedaybeforethe":[144],"assassinationandobservedhimatworkinhisbathtub.19Itwasthis":[145],"attitudethatheselectedforhiscommemorativeportrait.Inadditionto":[146],"paintingMarat'sofficialeffigy,Davidorganizedthefuneralceremony":[147],"andcampaignedactivelyforthehonorsofthePantheonthatwerebriefly":[148],"accordedto\"l'amidupeuple.\"20":[149],"David'scommemorativeportraitisnotalikenessintheordinarysense.":[150],"Contemporaryaccountsunderlinethephysicaldebilitiesandlaideurof":[151],"Marat,whichcontributedtohiscultasmartyrandlaterprovideda":[152],"paradigmoftherevolutionarydementiaoftheTerror.21Themostreli-":[153],"ablepictorialdocumentisarepresentationofMaratwriting,purportedly":[154],"drawnfromlifebyhisfriendLaplacein1793(Versailles,Mus\u00e9eLam-":[155],"binet).Instead,Davidstressesdramaandheightenedemotion(tradi-":[156],"tionalattributesofhistorypainting)attheexpenseofobjectivityand":[157],"individualphysiognomicpeculiarities(definingcharacteristicsofportrai-":[158],"ture).Thereasonsforthistheatricalizationandamplificationofthemodelareinthiscaserathertransparent.InoptingtoportrayMaratasa":[159],"revolutionarymartyr\u2014inproducingaveritablepiet\u00d7Davidturnedto":[160],"traditionalreligiousiconography,specificallythedeathofChrist,and":[161],"Caravaggesquelighting,ashasfrequentlybeennoted.Hemayalsohave":[162],"beeninfluencedbythetableauofMarat'sassassinationondisplayin":[163],"Curtius'sCabinetdeCire,whichMmeTussaudmentionsinhermem-":[164],"oirs.22Inaddition,thereisapossibleantiquesourceforthecomposi-":[165],"tion.23David'spaintingofMaratwasclearlyintendedtofunctionasan":[166],"exemplumvirtutis,asthepublicdisplayofthecanvasandthecommis-":[167],"sionfortheengravingattest.Theengravingdoesnotduplicatethepaint-":[168],"ing,however.Instead,itisbasedonDavid'sdazzlingpenandinkdraw-":[169],"ingofMarat'sdetachedhead(Versailles,Mus\u00e9enationalduchateau)":[170],"(fig.5),whichwasalsomodeledinwaxbyMmeTussaud.Thedisturb-":[171],"inglylifelikegazeseemstosignalMarat'scontinuedvigilanceevenafter":[172],"death.24Thepure,almostchildlikefeaturesofMarat,togetherwiththe":[173],"asymmetricalgaze,thepeculiarframing,andthemesmericstipplingand":[174],"crosshatchingeffects,createaniconofextraordinaryintensity.":[175],"Theelaboratefuneralceremonies,likeDavid'spaintedeffigy,gave":[176],"visualformtothemythandofficialsanctiontotheMaratcult.The":[177],"victimwaslaidoutonatriumphalbierintheEglisedesCordeliers,":[178],"surroundedbytricolorhangingsalongwithtwostonesfromtheBastille":[179],"185":[182],"Figure5.J.-L.David,HeadofMarat,1753(Versailles,mus\u00e9enationalduch\u00e2teau).":[183],"inscribed\"Marat\"and\"l'Amidupeuple\";hismakeshiftdesk,thebath-":[184],"tub,andtheinkwellwereexhibitedlikeinstrumentsofthepassion.The":[185],"woundresemblingChrist's(whichDavidrepresentedaccurately),com-":[186],"binedwithMarat'sgiftofprophecyandthetoposofself-sacrifice,fur-":[187],"thercontributedtoMarat'ssanctificationafterhisdeath.25Butnoteven":[188],"theflowerslovinglytossedonMarat'sbiercoulddisguisetherapidputre-":[189],"186":[190],"factionofthecorpseresultingfromtheheatandthediseasedstateofthe":[193],"deceased.Thewoundgaped;Marat'sfeaturessoonbecameunrecognizable":[194],";andrumorsoftheplaguebegantocirculate.Thegarishfaceand":[195],"torsoactuallyhadtobewhitenedforthefuneralprocession,whose":[196],"timingwasunexpectedlyadvanced(Guilhaumou,62-64).On17July":[197],"MaratwasburiedinthegardenoftheCordeliers;hisheart,likethoseof":[198],"Frenchkings,wasembalmedseparately.Atthefuneralapaintingdepict-":[199],"ingMaratdus\u00e9jourdesImmortelsauxFran\u00e7ais(ofwhichnotrace":[200],"remains)wasexhibited.Themiseensublimewasnowcomplete.26":[201],"InrepresentingtheDeathofMaratDavidtookanumberofliberties,":[202],"beginningwiththeroomitself,whichwasactuallywallpaperedandfur-":[203],"nished,notadark,indeterminatehole.Healsoprominentlydisplayed":[204],"CharlotteCorday'ssecond,undeliveredletter,theonewhichappealedto":[205],"Marat'smercy,andtheassignattobedeliveredtoamotheroffive.These":[206],"attributes,togetherwiththewoodencrateandtheasceticsurroundings,":[207],"associatedtherevolutionarymartyrwithChristiancharity,notavirtue":[208],"forwhichhehadbeenparticularlynotedinlife.27Furthermore,David's":[209],"verismfunctionsselectively;thehighlyillusionistictreatmentofdetails,":[210],"suchasthegrainofthewood,thetrompel'oeilinscription,andthe":[211],"bloodiedknife,seeminglyguaranteestheauthenticityofthescene.Para-":[212],"doxically,however,theverisimilitudeoftheobjectsalsocontributesto":[213],"thepicture'ssacredauraortranscendence,functioningasametaphysical":[214],"springboardlikeLoyola'sexercisesinmeditation.Finally,Marat'shid-":[215],"eousfeaturesandunsightlyillnesshavebeenpaintedoutofthepicture.":[216],"Thepoweroftheimageresidesinitsuneasyblendofthereligiousand":[217],"thesecular,violenceandtransfiguration,gruesomefactandcleansing":[218],"fiction,asBaudelairesoaptlynotedin1846whenhereferredtothe":[219],"appeasingroleofdeath,whichgivestheworkatender,poignantquality.":[220],"\"Cruellikenature,thispicturehasalltheperfumeoftheideal\"(225).28":[221],"YetasMarie-H\u00e9l\u00e8neH\u00faethassuggested,thedeathofMaratwasa":[222],"complexchronicleofadeathforetoldinwhichvictimandmurderer":[223],"becamereversiblewhentheeventswererestaged.29Severalmonths":[224],"beforetheassassinationMarathadbeentriedandacquittedbytheRevo-":[225],"lutionaryTribunal,whicheffectivelyturnedhimintoa\"livingmartyr\"":[226],"andplacedhimoutsidethereachofthelaw.30Thehalfdozenplaysthat":[227],"reenactedthedeathofMarat(oftenendingwithanapotheosis),like":[228],"David'smemorablepainting,illustratedtheimpossiblityofforgetting":[229],"andpresentedadoubleimageofdeathandresurrection.31Thethree":[230],"playsthatcelebratedCharlotteCorday'sinfamousactcompletedthe":[231],"cyclebegunbythetrialandexecutionofLouisXVI.OnApril24,1793,":[232],"beforetheTribunal,Marathadreferredtohimselfas\"martyrandapos-":[233],"tleofliberty.\"David'sbloodyeffigy,withitspersonalizedfunerary":[234],"187":[237],"inscription,exemplifiesthesublimeor\u00e9criturepolitiqueintheBarthean":[238],"sense\u2014anentelekheiaoftheRevolutionarylegendthatrequiredtheatri-":[239],"calamplificationandimposedacivicconsecrationofbloodshed.32":[240],"Despitehisdistasteforitsrevolutionarysubject,Del\u00e9cluzehailedthe":[241],"DeathofMaratasthefirstdemonstrationofthepowerandoriginalityof":[242],"David'stalent(405-406).ForDel\u00e9cluze,David'sMaratopenedtheway":[243],"forhispost-Revolutionarymasterpieces,theSabinesandthe":[244],"Coronation.":[245],"ThepoliticalcasetobemadeinNapoleon'sofficialportraitswasmore":[246],"complex\u2014thedoubleproblemwasoneoflegitimationandconsecration:":[247],"howtoprovideamilitaryopportunistwithanimperial(preferably":[248],"Roman)pedigree.ThemostblatantexampleisundoubtedlytheBona-":[249],"parteCrossingtheAlpsatSaint-Bernard,1800(fig.2),ofwhichfive":[250],"versionsexist.Theequestrianportrait,commissionedbyCharlesIVof":[251],"Spain,representsNapoleonintheMarengocostume,swathedinaswirl-":[252],"ingcapethatwasapparentlyinventedbytheartist.33Beginningwith":[253],"Del\u00e9cluze(233),mostscholarshaveattributedtheideabehindthepor-":[254],"traittoNapoleonhimself,whosupposedlytoldDavidthathewishedto":[255],"berepresentedicilymasteringhisfierysteed.34Itisnotknownexactly":[256],"whentheartistandthefutureEmperorfirstmet;however,theywere":[257],"certainlyincontactby1798.35AfterhisvictoryatMarengo,Napoleon,":[258],"thenfirstconsul,requestedthatDavidpainthisportrait.Davidaccepted":[259],"withenthusiasmeventhoughBonaparterefusedtopose,maintaining":[260],"thatportraitsofgreatmenoughttodisplaytheirgenius;physicalresem-":[261],"blancewasthereforeoflittleconsequence(Del\u00e9cluze,231-32).David":[262],"hadinitiallyenvisagedpaintingagrandioseportraitofNapoleonafter":[263],"theBattleofCastiglionewiththetreatyofFormio,accompaniedbyan":[264],"attendantholdinghishorse.Duringthesinglethree-hoursittingthathe":[265],"wasaccorded,DavidsketchedNapoleon'sheadinthe\"Atelierofthe...":[266]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-10-14T16:39:01.820549","created_date":"2016-06-24T00:00:00"}