{"id":"https://openalex.org/W101487142","doi":null,"title":"The Federal Courts and Claims of Racial Discrimination in Higher Education.","display_name":"The Federal Courts and Claims of Racial Discrimination in Higher Education.","publication_year":2000,"publication_date":"2000-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W101487142","mag":"101487142"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"mag:101487142","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ636422","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S91843068","display_name":"The Journal of Negro Education","issn_l":"0022-2984","issn":["0022-2984","2167-6437"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","jufo-1","norway-1","poland-70","russia-white-list-1"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310315754","host_organization_name":"Howard University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310315754"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Howard University"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"The Journal of Negro Education","raw_type":null},"volume":null,"type":"article","is_traditional":true,"indexed_in":[],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5060364945","display_name":"Janell Byrd-Chichester","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Janell Byrd-Chichester","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":0,"institutions_distinct_count":0,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5060364945"],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":1.1363,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":33,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.83218405,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":88,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"69","issue":null,"first_page":"12","last_page":"26"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12765","display_name":"Race, History, and American Society","score":0.6747999787330627,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3312","display_name":"Sociology and Political Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12765","display_name":"Race, History, and American Society","score":0.6747999787330627,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3312","display_name":"Sociology and Political Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T14017","display_name":"Legal Issues in Education","score":0.12309999763965607,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3308","display_name":"Law"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11384","display_name":"Critical Race Theory in Education","score":0.10849999636411667,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3312","display_name":"Sociology and Political Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/affirmative-action","display_name":"affirmative action","score":0.9279999732971191},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/higher-education-desegregation","display_name":"higher education desegregation","score":0.8679999709129333},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/racial-discrimination-in-higher-education","display_name":"racial discrimination in higher education","score":0.8330000042915344},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/federal-courts","display_name":"federal courts","score":0.8859999775886536},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/supreme-court","display_name":"Supreme Court","score":0.718999981880188},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/brown-v-board-of-education","display_name":"Brown v. Board of Education","score":0.8600000143051147},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/racial-hierarchy","display_name":"racial hierarchy","score":0.4000000059604645},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/historically-black-colleges-and-universities","display_name":"historically Black colleges and universities","score":0.9599999785423279},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/civil-rights-litigation","display_name":"civil rights litigation","score":0.5440000295639038}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779361081","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q48532","display_name":"Desegregation","level":2,"score":0.9085403680801392},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776515129","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7306218","display_name":"Redress","level":2,"score":0.733701229095459},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777732099","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q214244","display_name":"Affirmative action","level":2,"score":0.6350544691085815},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C17744445","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36442","display_name":"Political science","level":0,"score":0.5564181804656982},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780900520","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q100268981","display_name":"Denial","level":2,"score":0.5101821422576904},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778272461","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190752","display_name":"Supreme court","level":2,"score":0.5097398161888123},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779343474","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3109175","display_name":"Context (archaeology)","level":2,"score":0.4733417332172394},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C139838865","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8461","display_name":"Racism","level":2,"score":0.4656940698623657},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199539241","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7748","display_name":"Law","level":1,"score":0.43470174074172974},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120912362","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q136822","display_name":"Higher education","level":2,"score":0.431167334318161},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144024400","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21201","display_name":"Sociology","level":0,"score":0.403141587972641},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C3116431","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q31728","display_name":"Public administration","level":1,"score":0.3414533734321594},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86803240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420","display_name":"Biology","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11171543","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q41630","display_name":"Psychoanalysis","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C151730666","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7205","display_name":"Paleontology","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"mag:101487142","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ636422","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S91843068","display_name":"The Journal of Negro Education","issn_l":"0022-2984","issn":["0022-2984","2167-6437"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","jufo-1","norway-1","poland-70","russia-white-list-1"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310315754","host_organization_name":"Howard University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310315754"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Howard University"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"The Journal of Negro Education","raw_type":null}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Reduced inequalities","score":0.9629999995231628,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/10"},{"display_name":"Peace, justice, and strong institutions","score":0.8999999761581421,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/16"},{"display_name":"Quality education","score":0.4668000042438507,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4"}],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":13,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W748741987","https://openalex.org/W851314271","https://openalex.org/W1523065470","https://openalex.org/W1594877484","https://openalex.org/W1992566543","https://openalex.org/W2005799256","https://openalex.org/W2074683372","https://openalex.org/W2107175324","https://openalex.org/W2143705098","https://openalex.org/W2288516711","https://openalex.org/W2329007979","https://openalex.org/W3121517532","https://openalex.org/W3166131110"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2092612951","https://openalex.org/W2760097820","https://openalex.org/W226891960","https://openalex.org/W86693982","https://openalex.org/W2055447258","https://openalex.org/W2886495077","https://openalex.org/W54573070","https://openalex.org/W2954269701","https://openalex.org/W1852812909","https://openalex.org/W4415045461"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"This":[0,165,469],"article":[1,40],"places":[2],"current":[3],"controversies":[4],"over":[5],"affirmative":[6,79],"action":[7],"and":[8,48,61,155,158,161,189,205,211,231,287,290,305,380,437,452,476,507,512,517,556,615],"higher":[9,64,74,174,181],"education":[10,75,142,175,182],"desegregation":[11,76],"in":[12,25,51,63,98,130,143,153,179,202,259,273,284,300,310,316,326,447,478,490,495,509,514,522,529,551,568,628],"the":[13,21,26,34,39,45,52,56,99,103,111,122,138,146,168,180,185,192,221,229,251,260,266,269,311,331,353,364,367,387,396,401,413,417,443,462,479,483,539,563,569,598,603,610,616,619,623],"broad":[14],"historical":[15],"context":[16],"of":[17,36,44,59,106,114,141,184,195,220,234,268,333,340,366,383,395,419,433,482,501,531,541,561,580,584,600],"legal":[18,46,196,252],"challenges":[19],"to":[20,54,67,101,120,214,223,227,281,293,369,440,467,595,622,625],"racial":[22,133,276,308,564],"social":[23,134,144,277,448],"order":[24,135,278],"United":[27,261,570],"States.":[28,571],"With":[29],"a":[378],"specific":[31],"focus":[32],"on":[33],"role":[35,124,140,147,170,272],"federal":[37,88,126],"courts,":[38],"provides":[41],"an":[42,216,294,434,488],"overview":[43],"cases":[47],"issues":[49],"involved":[50],"efforts":[53],"address":[55],"present":[57],"effects":[58,233],"segregation":[60],"discrimination":[62],"education.":[65],"Efforts":[66],"enhance":[68],"opportunity":[69,256],"for":[70,208,254,257,423,536],"African":[71,186,334,581],"Americans":[72],"through":[73],"remedies,":[77],"including":[78],"action,":[80],"currently":[81],"are":[82],"receiving":[83],"somewhat":[84],"hostile":[85],"receptions":[86],"before":[87,345,428],"courts.":[89],"Thus,":[90],"they":[91,373,457],"remain":[92],"important":[93,119],"but":[94],"nonetheless":[95],"tenuous":[96,193],"approaches":[97],"struggle":[100,253],"rectify":[102],"historic":[104,123,236],"denial":[105],"educational":[107,163,255],"opportunity.":[108],"To":[109],"understand":[110],"precarious":[112],"position":[113,289,513],"these":[115,149],"efforts,":[116],"it":[117,521,576],"is":[118],"examine":[121],"that":[125,148,171,191,279,358,456,473,605,607],"courts":[127,150],"have":[128,151,177],"played":[129,152,178],"preserving":[131],"America's":[132],"and,":[136],"recognizing":[137],"critical":[139,169],"advancement,":[145],"protecting":[154,274],"expanding-but":[156],"also,":[157],"importantly,":[159],"curtailing":[160],"denying-Blacks'":[162],"opportunities.":[164],"history":[166,267],"underscores":[167],"historically":[172],"Black":[173,403],"institutions":[176],"successes":[183],"American":[187],"community,":[188],"suggests":[190],"quality":[194],"remedies":[197],"requires":[198],"both":[199,554],"continued":[200],"persistence":[201],"those":[203],"pursuits":[204],"call":[207],"all":[209],"colleges":[210],"universities":[212],"voluntarily":[213],"shoulder":[215],"even":[217],"greater":[218],"share":[219],"responsibility":[222],"devise":[224],"new":[225],"means":[226],"redress":[228],"cumulative":[230],"pervasive":[232],"this":[235,307,542],"wrong.":[237],"THE":[238,243],"SUPREME":[239],"COURT'S":[240],"PROTECTION":[241],"OF":[242],"U.S.":[244],"RACIAL":[245],"HIERARCHY":[246],"One":[247],"cannot":[248],"fairly":[249],"discuss":[250],"Blacks":[258,292,359],"States":[262],"without":[263,534],"first":[264],"reviewing":[265],"Supreme":[270,313,324,548],"Court's":[271,414],"sought":[280],"place":[282],"Whites":[283],"superior":[286],"controlling":[288],"relegate":[291],"inferior,":[295,455],"subservient":[296],"one.":[297],"The":[298,355,546],"Court,":[299],"excruciating":[301],"detail,":[302],"fully":[303],"explained":[304],"endorsed":[306],"hierarchy":[309],"1857":[312],"Court":[314,325,356,549],"decision":[315],"Dred":[317,327,552],"Scott":[318,328,553],"v.":[319],"Sanford.":[320],"A":[321],"politically":[322],"charged":[323],"addressed":[329],"whether":[330],"descendants":[332],"slaves,":[335],"when":[336],"emancipated":[337],"or":[338,449,590,602],"born":[339],"parents":[341],"who":[342],"became":[343],"free":[344,592],"their":[346,523,585],"birth,":[347],"could":[348],"be":[349,370,596],"considered":[350,376],"citizens":[351,371],"under":[352],"Constitution.":[354],"held":[357],"were":[360,374],"not":[361],"intended":[362],"by":[363,386],"framers":[365],"Constitution":[368,624],"because":[372],"universally":[375],"as":[377,431,492,494,526,528,558,587],"subordinate":[379],"inferior":[381,435],"class":[382],"beings...":[384],"subjugated":[385],"dominant":[388],"race":[389],"(p.":[390],"700),":[391],"with":[392,442],"stigma":[394],"deepest":[397],"degradation":[398],"fixed":[399,475],"upon":[400,520],"entire":[402],"race.'":[404],"Chief":[405],"Justice":[406],"Roger":[407],"Taney's":[408],"now":[409],"infamous":[410],"words":[411],"expressed":[412],"sentiment":[415],"about":[416],"status":[418,586,599],"Blacks:":[420],"They":[421],"had":[422,458],"more":[424],"than":[425],"century":[427],"been":[429],"regarded":[430],"beings":[432],"order;":[436],"altogether":[438],"unfit":[439],"associate":[441],"white":[444,463,484],"race,":[445],"either":[446],"political":[450],"relations;":[451],"so":[453],"far":[454],"no":[459,498,578],"rights":[460,604],"which":[461,497],"man":[464],"was":[465,471,487,594],"bound":[466],"respect....":[468],"opinion":[470],"at":[472],"time":[474],"universal":[477],"civilized":[480],"portion":[481],"race.":[485],"It":[486],"axiom":[489],"morals":[491],"well":[493,527],"politics,":[496],"one":[499],"thought":[500],"disputing,":[502],".":[503,504,505],";":[506],"men":[508],"every":[510],"grade":[511],"society":[515],"daily":[516],"habitually":[518],"acted":[519],"private":[524],"pursuits,":[525],"matters":[530],"public":[532],"concern,":[533],"doubting":[535],"moment":[538],"correctness":[540],"opinion.":[543],"(pp.":[544],"701-702)":[545],"seven-justice":[547],"majority":[550],"acknowledged":[555],"upheld,":[557],"matter":[560],"law,":[562],"caste":[565],"system":[566],"operating":[567],"In":[572],"such":[573],"system,":[575],"maintained,":[577],"person":[579],"descent,":[582],"regardless":[583],"slave":[589],"Black,":[593],"afforded":[597],"citizenship":[601],"accompanied":[606],"status.":[608],"Following":[609],"Civil":[611],"War,":[612],"Congress":[613],"adopted":[614],"states":[617],"ratified":[618],"13th":[620],"Amendment":[621],"abolish":[626],"slavery":[627],"1865.":[629],"\u2026":[630]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":18},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2016,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2013,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-11-03T10:50:19.383937","created_date":"2016-06-24T00:00:00"}